Unit-1 to Unit-6(Business Communication-Semester 1)
GRAMMAR TOPICS
NOUNS: Definite and Indefinite Articles. Normally a noun preceded by a definite article (THE) or an indefinite article(A, AN) as follows:
Definite Article
The tourist, the area, the card, the hotel etc.
Indefinite article
A tourist, an area, a card, a hotel, some people, some signs
Note: The definite article refer to something specific, while indefinite articles refer to something nonspecific.
Singular Noun And Plural Noun
Most words form the plural by adding an –s to the end of the singular form:
Ex: month---months; visa----visas; airport---airports
And there are other words, referring to more than one person or things, do not normally add an –s
Ex: the people, the fish, the mice etc
Irregular Noun Plurals
When the final –y is preceded by a consonant, change the –y to –I and add –es
Ex: Baby---babies; lady---ladies
If a noun ends in –fe or –f , the ending is changed to –ves
Ex: life---lives; thief---thieves
Add –es to the noun ending with –sh,-ch,-s,-z and –x
Ex: wish---wishes; class---classes
Both the –s and –es spelling are accepted for nouns ending in –o
Ex: tomato---tomatoes, tomato’s; hero---heroes, heros
The plural possessive form of these nouns is also irregular.
Ex: child---children; foot---feet; goose---geese; man---men
The plural is same as the singular for these nouns
Ex: deer---deer; fish---fish; sheep---sheep; species---species
The final sound of these plurals is pronounced as –sees
Ex: crisis---crises; thesis---theses.
Count and Noncount nouns
A count noun may be preceded by –a or –an in the singular; it takes a final –s or –es in the plural.
Non count noun refer to things that cannot be counted (Ex: money, rain, snow, butter). Noncount nouns are not preceded by –a or –an and have no plural form.
Ex: advice, news, information, work, weather, water etc
Some nouns can be both count and Noncount nouns:
Ex: we drank some wine. (Noncount); we ordered three wines (count)
Using Some and Any
Some and Any are used before plural nouns: some money, some dollars, any change.
However it is often possible to leave out the word SOME in declarative sentences:
Ex: we have (some) checks. Mr. Robert gives them (some) money.
The word ANY is usually used in questions or negation to replace SOME.
Ex: Do you have some changes?----Do you have any changes?
Using FEW, LITTLE; A FEW and A LITTLE
A FEW and FEW are used with plural count nouns:
Ex: a few friends, few ideas, a few things to do etc
A LITTLE and LITTLE are used with Noncount nouns:
Ex: little money, a little rain, a little wind
NOTE: FEW and LITTLE give a negative idea, conveying the notion that something is largely absent
Ex: They have very little money, we have very few options remaining.
NOTE: A Few and a Little give a positive idea, indicating that something Exits or is present
Ex: I have a little free time today, do you have a few moments?
ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS AND PRONOUNS
Placement of Adjectives and Adverbs:
Adjectives and adverbs are invariable in English. Adjectives always come in front of the noun they modify. Adverbs usually come after the verb and they modify.
Adjectives:
A good book, an Excellent dinner, a fine wine, a charming person
Adverbs:
This newspaper is published frequently.
The Immigration agent is speaking quickly.
Using Comparisons
There are two ways to make a comparison in English.
1. Use more in front of the adjective. Ex: Its more Exciting
2. Add –er to the end of the adjective. Ex: A bus is cheaper than a taxi.
3. Complete a comparison, use than. Ex: I am older than my wife.
Adverbs can also be used in comparisons. MORE is used with adverbs that ends with –ly
Ex: slowly---more slowly; careful---more carefully
Use –er with one-syllable adverbs: faster, harder, sooner, closer etc
Note these irregular forms:
Well----Better, far----farther, badly---worse.
Subject Pronouns
Subject pronoun takes the place of the noun which is the subject of the sentence. Subject pronouns come in front of verbs, while object pronouns follows them.
Ex: I------ we; You-----you; he, she, It-----they.
Ex: Mary goes to school ; She goes to school.
Ex: Tom and Sarah live there. They live there.
Object Pronouns
A pronoun is used in place of noun. Subject pronouns comes in front of verbs, and object pronouns follows them.
Ex: me--- us; you---you; him, her, it----them.
Ex: We see our friends. We see them. Call the waiter. Call him
Possessive Adjectives
1st person, singular---my
3rd person, singular---his, her, its.
1st person, plural---- our
2nd person, sing/pl----your
3rd person, plural----their
In English , the gender and number of the possessor determines the form of the possessive adjective:
Ex: I have a credit card------- Its my credit card.
Ex: She has some money--------Its her money.
Possessive Pronouns
1st person, singular-----mine
2nd person, singular-----yours
3rd person, singular-----his, her, its
1st person, plural-----ours
2nd person, plural-----yours
3rd person, plural-----theirs
Demonstrative adjectives and Pronouns
To differentiate between things in English, use either:
This, that, these, those
Any of these demonstratives can be used with a noun(as an adjective) or by itself (as a pronoun). This (singular) and These (plural) refer to something or someone close at hand. That (singular) and those (Plural) refer to something or someone a bit farther away.
Ex: Do you want this box or that box? I would like some of that popcorn.
Ex: Do you want these or those? This apartment is nicer than that one.
Using “Whose”
Whose is used to show possession. It has the same meaning as the other possessive adjectives such as his, her, its, their etc.
Ex: There’s the man whose house we bought. I have a book whose story is fascinating.
Whose modifies people but can also be used with things.
One should learn how to combine short sentences using Whose.
Ex: The women is a talented artist. I saw her paintings.
The women whose painting I saw is a talented artist.
Using “Where”
Where can be used to ask questions:
Ex: Where are you going?
Where can also be used in a dependent Clause:
Ex: I see the house where they live.
Note: The dependent clauses, where can be replaced with –in which, -which….in, that…..in, or nothing at all.
Using “When”
When can be used to ask questions:
Ex: When are you leaing?
When can be used in a dependent clause:
Ex: I forgot the date when you arrived?
Note: how two sentences are combined using When
Ex: I will always remember the day she was born. She was born then(on that day).
I will always remember the day when she was born.
VERBS:
The Present Tense:
The simple present tense in English is formed as follows:
Ex: I live, you live, he, she, it lives, we live, you live, they live……..
The Forms of “to do”
To do:
I do-------do I ?
You Do------do you?
We do-------do we?
You do----do you?
They do----do they?
The Verbs “to be,” “to have” and “to go”
To be, to have, and to go are irregular verbs. Their forms in the present tense are as follows:
To Be : I am, you are, (he, she, it is), we are, you are, they are
To Have: I have, you have, (he, she, it has), we have, you have, they have.
To Go: I go, you go, (he, she, it goes), we go, you go, they go.
Contractions
To Be: I am----I’m, he is----he’s, we are----we’re, you are----you’re, they are----they’re.
To have: I have---I’ve, we have---we’ve, you have---you’ve, they have---they’
Formation of “-ing” Verbs
There are certain rules for forming –ing verbs just as there are for the –ed forms.
1. Verbs that end in –E
Drop the –e and add –ing: Ex: hope----hoping; date----dating.
2. Verbs that end in-Y
Keep the –y and add –ing: Ex: buy---buying; try---trying; study---studying.
3. Verbs that end in –IE
Change the –ie to –y Ex: die---dying; lie---lying.
4. Verbs that end in two CONSONANTS
Just add the –ing ending: Ex: start-----starting
5. For One-syllable verbs:
a. 1 vowel-------2 consonants (stop-----stopping)
b. 2 vowel-------1 consonants (dream----dreaming)
6. For two-syllable verbs:
a. 1stsyllable stressed -----1 consonant ( listen----listening)
b. 2ndsyllable stressed------2 consonants ( prefer----preferring).
Using Gerunds
A gerunds is the –ing form of the verb used as a noun. Like nouns, gerunds can be subjects or objects.
Subject GERUND: Playing golf is fun.
Object GERUND: we are used to having a lot of fun.
By is often used with gerunds to describe how something is done:
Ex: By calling the office, you will be able to know that what’s going on.
Here are a number of common verbs followed by Gerunds:
Finish-----they finished working at 6 P.M
Stop-------I stopped calling you at midnight.
Quit-------they quit eating for 24 hours.
Avoid------you can’t avoid answering the questions.
Keep (on): They will keep on studying.
Enjoy----My neighbors enjoys walking the dog.
NOTE: GO is followed by a gerund in certain idiomatic Expressions related to sports and physical activities.
Ex: Did they go shopping yesterday? They went sailing at the lake. We are going skiing this winter in the Rockies.
The Emphatic form of the Present
The emphatic form of the present tense in English is for emphasis. When you use DO as an auxiliary in an affirmative sentence, it makes the verb stronger.
Ex: Do you speak English or French ? I don’t speak French, but I do speak English.
Ex: He does understand you, doesn’t he?
The Simple Past Tense
Use the simple past tense when you are talking about something that happened at one particular time in the past. Normally, there is a reference to the past time.
Ex: I knew your aunt when she was young. Yesterday, they bought a car. We rented a car last week.
For many verbs, just add the ending –ed to the verb to make it simple past:
Ex: borrow----borrowed; close----closed; open-----opened; cash-----cashed.
Some rules for making the simple past tense of regular verbs:
1.Verbs ending in –e, add –d (hope------hoped)
2. Verbs ending in a vowel and a consonant-
For one syllable verbs having a single vowel, double the consonant ending.
Ex: stop----stopped; rob----robbed.
For one syllable verbs having two vowels, just add –ed.
Ex: rain----rained; dream----dreamed( also dreamt)
For two syllable verbs, in which the first syllable is stressed, just add –ed
Ex: listen-----listened.
For two syllable verbs, in which the second syllable is stressed, double the consonant ending as you did for A above:
Ex: Prefer ------preferred; control------ controlled
Verbs ending with –y add –ied; -ie add –d;
Ex: try----tried; die----died
Verbs ending in two consonants, just add the ending -ed
Ex: Call-----called
The Present Perfect Tense
The present perfect, like the other perfect tenses(past and future perfects), conveys the idea that one thing happens before another time or event. In other words, perfect tenses are always used within a context and not in isolation.
To form the present perfect, use a form of have (plus) past participle:
Ex: they’ve already dried their clothes. I’ve just finished washing my clothes.
Imperatives ( the command Form)
It is simple to use the imperative or command form in English. When a command is directed at someone else, use the you form of the simple present tense.
Ex: you take the elevator, take the elevator ( Simply drop the subject YOU)
If the command includes you and others, use the WE form.
Ex: we take our luggage. Let’s take the luggage.
The Future Tense
The future tense is often used in both questions and declarative sentences:
Ex: Ques: Will you be having lunch? Ans: I will just have a salad.
It is easy to use the future. Just add WILL (or SHALL)
Ex: he gets you something to drink. He’ll get you something…………..
Ex: We have a salad. We’ll have a salad.
The Past Perfect Tense
The past perfect tense is used when expressing activity that was completed in the past before another past activity or time:
Ex: until yesterday, they had never been seen the film.
Ex: After the restaurant had closed, the customer went home.
The Progressive Form of the Present
In many situations you will encounter the progressive form of the present tense. There are three forms of the present in the English, the simple, progressive, and emphatic. Compare the simple and the progressive conjugations of the verb TO GO
Simple Present: I go, you go, he, she, it goes, we go, they go.
Progressive Present: I am going, you are going, he, she, it is going, we are going , they are going.
The past progressive tense
The past progressive is used when talking about something that was in progress at a particular time in the past.
Ex: they were buying groceries when we arrived.
Tense Formation (Past Progressive)
Simply put the helping verb into the past tense and use the –ing form of the main verb.
Ex: we are playing tennis. We were playing tennis.
The future Progressive Tense
An action that will be underway at a particular time in the future .
Ex: the clerk will be weighing the bananas when you return.
Tense formation (Future Progressive)
Simply put the helping verb (a form of to be ) into the future tense and use the –ing form of the main verb.
Ex: we buy groceries. We will be buying groceries.
Usage of the Perfect Progressive Tenses
The present progressive tenses are used to indicate duration in the past.
Present Perfect Progressive:
I have been reading for one hour.
They have been watching television for three hours.
Past Perfect Progressive:
We had been travelling for three days when we ran out of money.
I have been waiting for an hour when the doctor arrived.
Future Perfect Progressive:
He will be working there for a year by the time you arrive.
When he retires, he will have been working for 40 years.
Using “Should”
One of the meaning of the modal auxiliary should is advisability.
Ex: You should leave right now. They should fill out this form.
You can also use either ought to or had better
Ex : you ought to leave right now. They should fill out this form.
(you had better leave……) ( they had better fill out…….)
The past form of “should”
To form the past of shouldsimply add have plus participle:
Ex: I missed my plane this morning. I should have left earlier.
Expectation and “Should”
Should can be used to express advisability:
Ex: the front desk clerk should give us a discount.
Another way Should can be used is in expressions of expectation:
Ex: they have been working hard. They should do well. (in this ex should means will probably)
Using Could
1. past ability ---- I can speak English now. I couldn’t when I was a child.
2. Polite questions: Could I borrow your car? Could you speak slower?
Using May and Might
Two important modal verbs are MAY and MIGHT
Ex: you may be wrong. You Might be wrong.
Ex: the attorney might be late. The attorney may be late.
The past form is expressed as follows:
Modal(may/might) –(plus)have-(Plus) past participle
Ex: I may/might have left my glasses in the restaurant.
NOTE: Must can also be used to express probability.
Ex: the plane must be leaving now.
Progressive forms of “May” and “Might”
The past progressive forms of MAY and MIGHT are formed by adding HAVE BEEN Plus the –ing form of the main.
Ex: I dint see them at the hotel. They may have been having dinner.
Ex: The mail dint arrive on time. The mailman might have been having trouble with his car.
“Sense” Verbs
Verbs related to the senses (to taste, feel, and smell) are treated somewhat differently in terms of modifiers. Instead of an adverb, use the equivalent to describe how something tastes, feel, or smells.
Ex: these flowers smell good. (not well). I feel bad. (Not badly, although you will hear this). My salad tastes good. (Not well).
Two-words Verbs
The term two-word verb refers to a verb and a preposition which together have a special meaning.
Ex: Bring Up---To rear children. To mention a topic.
Ex: Call Up-----To call on the telephone.
Ex: Clean Up---To make clean and orderly.
Ex: Do over, drop Off, fill Out, get On, give back, go over, hand in, hang up, look over, look up, pick up, put away.
There are two categories of two-word verbs:
1. Separable: I handed my paper in.
2. Non-Separable: she gets off the train.
The Verb “to get”
The verb GET is used constantly. One common occurrence of GET is with an adjective.
Ex: I am getting hungry. You should not eat so much. You will be Fat.
In this instance, GET has the meaning of become.
Get may also be followed by a past participle (-ed)
Ex: we got worried, because they were late. I got tired from all the work.
Some of the common adjectives that follows GET are angry, anxious, big, cold, dark, fat, hot, hungry, late, mad.
Troublesome Verbs
Transitive(followed by an object): raise, raised, raised----the farmer is raising chicken.
Set, set, set--------I will set the glass down.
Intransitive (not followed by an object): rise, rose, risen-----the sun was just rising.
Sit, sat, sat------I will sit in this chair.
Verbs followed by Infinitives
List of common verbs that are usually followed immediately by an infinitive:
Ex: hope, agree, offer, seem, agree, forget, appear, expert, want etc.
Ex: she hopes to leave soon. They want to buy a car.
The Passive Voice
With the active voice, the agent or subject comes before the verb. With the passive, the subject follows the verb and is usually preceded with the word BY.
Active: The doctor wrote a prescription.
Passive: The prescription was written by the doctor.
Direct and Indirect Speech
A newspapers, magazines, and books, you will often see quoted or direct speech.
Ex: they said, “we have no record of this transaction”
Ex: He stated,” I don’t know what happened.”
Spoken English, reported or indirect speech will be used instead.
Ex: they said that they had no record of this transactions.
Ex: he stated that he didn’t know what happened.
Here are some rules for tense usage in indirect speech.
1. If a main verb of the sentence is in the past (said, reported, stated, etc) the verb in the dependent clause will also be in the past.
2. Here is a chart indicating typical transformations:
a. Quoted IN-------à Reported In
Simple present-------simple past; present progressive------perfect progressive
Present perfect-------past perfect; simple past----------past perfect.
Ex: I said, “she reads the paper everyday”
Ex: I said she read the paper everyday.
Ex: I said, “she is reading the paper everyday.”
Ex: I said she was reading the paper……..
Ex: I said, “she has read the paper everyday.”
Ex: I said she had read the paper……
Ex: I said, “she read the paper everyday.”
Ex: I said she had read the paper……..
Ex: I said, “she will read the paper everyday.”
Ex: I said she would read the paper……..
Sentence Structure
Negatives
The word NOT is used with DO to make a verb negative, as in “I don’t have any money”. No is used as an adjective in front of a noun, as in “I have no money”.
Note this contracted negative forms with DO.
I don’t; you don’t; he, she, it doesn’t; they don’t; you don’t; we don’t.
Some affirmative words and their negative forms in English:
Affirmatives: someone, anybody; something, anything
Negatives: no one, nobody; nothing; no longer; never; neither…nor.
Avoid using more than one negative in a clause:
Ex: I don’t have any money. I don’t have no money.
Ex: they don’t see anybody. I don’t see nobody.
Asking Questions
In English you can ask simple yes/no questions by either inverting the subject and verb or by using rising intonation .
Information Questions
Many times you will want to ask a question that elicits information, instead of a simple yes/no answer. Information question will begin with one of the following words;
Ex: who, whom, whose, why, when, where, what, which, how
Tag Questions
Tag Questions: are questions that are added at the end of a sentence.
Ex: Mary is here, isn’t she?
Ex: you like beer, don’t you?
Ex: They are leaving, aren’t they?
Questions in the Simple Past Tense
When making a question using the simple past, you will use Did just as you use do with the simple present tense.
Simple Present: they accept credit cards---- do they accept credit cards?
Simple Past: they accepted credit cards last year---do they accept credit cards last year?
Tidak ada komentar:
Posting Komentar